Kretchmars Five Types Of Dualism

Kretchmars Five Types Of Dualism The classical emphasis emerged from one of the most famous Greek philosophers dialogue, Platos Phaedo. Plato believed that the most important things are not the material or physical entities but the eternal Forms. He also stated that the bodies and physical matters are just imperfect replicas of such Forms. Aristotle, one of Platos students did not believe in the Platonic Forms. Aristotle argued that the body is far more important than the mind and the soul (the mind) do not exist. His forms are the property of things and the things existing in those things. This made it easier for Aristotle to explain the body and soul union by saying that the soul is nothing more than form of the body. Due to this reasoning, by Aristotle arguments the soul is something material because it is a property of the body. Aristotle argument and theory led to many interpreters, ancient and modern, to interpret Aristotle theory as materialistic. The more modern version of dualism has their origin and is associated Rene Descartes Meditations. Descartes was known to be a substance dualist. He states that there are two types of substance, the matter which the essential property is spatially extended and the mind which is the essential property that do the thinking. In very recent history, Scott Kretchmar divided Descartes dualism into five kinds. These five kinds are: Substance Value Knowledge Language Behaviour Substance Dualism: Substance is at the heart of the dualistic thinking and practise. Dualists argue that the mind (soul) and the body are two radically different things. The body is seen just like another object, it is like on the same level of a football, water and rocks. When we see the body from this perspective, the body can be used, manipulated, dissected and treated like any other object. Since the body is seen as an object, then the body is just a machine made of joints which move using the levers and force. Like any other physical object the body obey and use the laws of physics. The substance dualists also acknowledge thinking. Thought is not like the matter. Matter has shape, colour and obey laws. Thinking or the mind or the soul does not have colour, size, form or shape and do not observe physics laws. The mind obeys the logic rules and coherence. Substance dualism does acknowledge that the body and mind interact. These dualists also acknowledge that the body affect the mind and vice versa. While the connection between the mind and the body is very difficult to explain, but through scientific experiments and personal experience the body and the mind do affect each other. Value Dualism: Value dualism grounded deep in substance dualism. Value dualists see the human as being the mind and the body. Plato placed the thoughts, perfection and ideas over the body, above the mediocrity and emotions. Plato continued his theoretical argument that the body at its best serve as a compliment to the mind and helping the mind to acquire more intellect and knowledge. At the same time, he stated that at worst the body will hinder the mind from gather more knowledge due to our carnal nature and desire. If this happens, it will be the source of our animal instinct, emotion disturbance and perceptual errors and then peak result will be pain and death. Plato stated that our physical senses may perceive things in a wrong way and therefore our senses will transmit to the mind wrong messages and the knowledge transmitted can be negatively influencing the mind. Value dualists; value the mind over the body, with the body being the source of all evil. But this raise some questions, such as, does all the evil come from the body? Impure thoughts, such as, excessive anger and greed does not disturb the acquisition of knowledge? Is this evil which originated and circulated in the mind without any help from the body? Knowledge Dualism: Knowledge dualism is divided into two categories, the knowing and the knowing how. The knowing is pure knowledge, pure understanding of things. The knowledge of why some things work better than others, why things occur in such a way and order. Knowledge of why we feel better after a good session of training, why our cardiovascular system improves in functionality with regular training. The knowledge of knowing how is purely procedural. This kind of knowledge help people and athletes perform better skills. A great football player can kick the ball with so meticulousness that if he is ask how he did it he wont be able to explain what he did. The player will be at a level of knowledge of kicking the ball that for him it will be hard to explain the complexity of the angle of the foot, the power in the kick and the position of the supporting leg. This happens because it so natural for him to do that and cannot explain why and how. People with this kind of dualism do not really understand what they are doing and this will compromise the value of accomplishments. Behaviour Dualism: Gilbert Ryle in his book The Concept of Mind describes behaviour dualism is a type of value dualism because it climaxes the requirement of the body as a machine and the mind as an operator. This kind of dualism suggests that all actions has a dual process. The process of thinking followed by the process of doing. These dualists beliefs are similar to the valuelists because they believe that since the body is only a machine it cant function on its own. Therefore; since the body is only a machine, it must awaits for commands from the mind. The behavioural dualism point of view is that the mind and the body are in an unbalanced relationship where the body depends totally on the mind. Language Dualism: Language dualism is similar to the behaviour dualism and is considered as a value type dualism. This kind of dualism focuses on symbolism focuses on an image or an action and such action or images stand for something else. According to Ernst Cassirer in his book Philosophy of Symbolic Form (1944), the achievement of using symbols is what makes us human beings. This is also considered as a trademark for human beings and this hallmark distinguishes us from all the other lower life forms. This kind of dualism is divided into two major groups, intellectual and non-intellectual. The intellectual group consists of poems, prose and other writing and spoken form. This group also include any mathematical symbols used in physics and other sciences. Since these are considered intellectual, these factors are at the heart of most of IQ tests, SRT and other intelligence and academic testing. These are used because they are considered as they are thought to show the mind workings at its best. The other group is the non-intellectual. Paintings, music and sports are found under this category. Because these form part of the non-intellectual group, these are given a lesser academic rating and importance.

Avicenna (Ibn Sina) Essay

Abu ‘Ali al-Husayn ibn Sina is better known in Europe by the Latinized name â€Å"Avicenna. † He is probably the most significant philosopher in the Islamic tradition and arguably the most influential philosopher of the pre-modern era. Born in Afshana near Bukhara in Central Asia in about 980, he is best known as a polymath, as a physician whose major work the Canon (al-Qanun fi’l-Tibb) continued to be taught as a medical textbook in Europe and in the Islamic world until the early modern period, and as a philosopher whose major summa the Cure (al-Shifa’) had a decisive impact upon European scholasticism and especially upon Thomas Aquinas (d. 274). Primarily a metaphysical philosopher of being who was concerned with understanding the self’s existence in this world in relation to its contingency, Ibn Sina’s philosophy is an attempt to construct a coherent and comprehensive system that accords with the religious exigencies of Muslim culture. As such, he may be considered to be the first major Islamic philosopher. The philosophical space that he articulates for God as the Necessary Existence lays the foundation for his theories of the soul, intellect and cosmos. Furthermore, he articulated a development in the philosophical enterprise in classical Islam away from the apologetic concerns for establishing the relationship between religion and philosophy towards an attempt to make philosophical sense of key religious doctrines and even analyse and interpret the Qur’an. Recent studies have attempted to locate him within the Aristotelian and Neoplatonic traditions. His relationship with the latter is ambivalent: although accepting some keys aspects such as an emanationist cosmology, he rejected Neoplatonic epistemology and the theory of the pre-existent soul. However, his metaphysics owes much to the â€Å"Amonnian† synthesis of the later commentators on Aristotle and discussions in legal theory and kalamon meaning, signification and being. Apart from philosophy, Avicenna’s other contributions lie in the fields of medicine, the natural sciences, musical theory, and mathematics. In the Islamic sciences (‘ulum), he wrote a series of short commentaries on selected Qur’anic verses and chapters that reveal a trained philosopher’s hermeneutical method and attempt to come to terms with revelation. He also wrote some literary allegories about whose philosophical value recent cholarship is vehemently at odds. His influence in medieval Europe spread through the translations of his works first undertaken in Spain. In the Islamic world, his impact was immediate and led to what Michot has called â€Å"la pandemie avicennienne. † When al-Ghazali led the theological attack upon the heresies of the philosophers, he singled out Avicenna, and a generation later when the Shahrastani gave an account of the doctrines of the philosophers of Islam, he relied upon the work of Avicenna, whose metaphysics he later attempted to refute in his Struggling against the Philosophers (Musari‘at al-falasifa). Avicennan metaphysics became the foundation for discussions of Islamic philosophy and philosophical theology. In the early modern period in Iran, his metaphysical positions began to be displayed by a creative modification that they underwent due to the thinkers of the school of Isfahan, in particular Mulla Sadra (d. 1641).

Chapter 9: Implementing Strategy Through Organizational Design

Organizational Design – The process through which managers select the combination of organizational structure and control systems that they believe will enable the company to create and sustain a competitive advantage. Coordinate and motivate employees To create valueand Obtain a competitive advantage Koontz and O’Donnell The Process School of Management Planning Organizing Staffing Directing Controlling Building blocks of organizational structure Differentiation Vertical – how much authority to delegate Horizontal – how to divide people Into functions and divisions Integration – coordinate people and functions To accomplish organizational goals and tasks Tall structure (7 – 10 levels) Flat structure (2 – 4 levels) Tall Structure Problems Coordination Information distortion Motivation Too many middle managers McKinsey Consulting Company Increased height of company organization structures Presidents Office President of each division Centralization or Decentralization (tending toward) Decentralization 1. Delegate decision making authority to middle and lower level managers 2. Adapt to local conditions. Promotes flexibility 3. Fewer managers needed Centralization 1. Facilitates coordination and planning 2. Decisions fit broad organizational objectives Management Policy – Guidelines for decision making are made at highest levels And passed down to lower levels Horizontal Differentiation – How to group tasks and activities to meet strategies Functional Structure – Grouping by expertise. Most U. S. firms have a functional structure Advantages Good place to learn Easy to control Effective and efficient Disadvantages Geographical diversion causes duplication of people and costs Communication problems Measurement problems Location problems Strategic problems Product Structure – Group by product line. Product Team structure Matrix Management Concurrent Design Methodology Cross-functional teams Geographic Structure Multidivisional Structure Self-contained product line or business unit (Operating responsibility) Corp headquarters staff. Financial Control. (Strategic Responsibility) Advantages of Multidivisional Structure Enhanced corporate financial control Strategic control Growth Internal efficiency Disadvantages of a Multidivisional Structure Establish Division-Corporate authority levels GM and Alfred Sloan Litton Industries Distortion of information Competition for resources Transfer pricing (GE example) Focus on short-term High operating costs All functions are in each division Integration and Organizational Control Forms in Integrating Mechanisms 1. Direct contact 2. Interdepartmental liaison roles 3. Temporary task forces – ad hoc committees 4. Permanent teams – standing committees 5. Integrating roles Differentiation and Integration The Nature of Organizational Control 1. Monitor 2. Evaluate 3. Compare actual to goals 4. Take corrective action Strategic Controls Financial controls Stock Sales Growth ROI Profit Output Controls Set Goals Measure output performance against goals Behavior Control – Rules and Procedures Common controls 1. Operating budgets 2. Standardization 3. Rules and procedures 4. Organizational Culture a. Values – beliefs and goals b. Norms – Expectations for behavior Culture and Strategic Leadership Walt Disney example

Hama Rules - Syrian Massacre of Muslim Brotherhood

Hama Rules - Syrian Massacre of Muslim Brotherhood Hama is Syrias fourth largest city after Aleppo, Damascus, and Homs. It is located in the northwestern part of the country. In the early 1980s, it was a stronghold of the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood, which was working to topple the minority, Alawite regime of then-Syrian President Hafez el Assad. In February 1982, Assad ordered his military to demolish the city. New York Times reporter Thomas Friedman called the tactic Hama Rules. Answer Syrian President Hafez el Assad took power in a military coup on November 16, 1970, when he was the minister of defense. Assad was an Alawite, a splinter Islamic sect that makes up about 6 percent of the Syrian population, which is predominantly Sunni Muslim, with Shiites, Kurds and Christians forming other minorities. Sunnis make up more than 70 percent of the population. As soon as Assad took over, the Syrian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood began to plan for his overthrow. By the late 1970s, a slow-simmer, but persistently violent guerilla war was being waged against Assads regime as bombs went off outside Syrian government buildings or Soviet advisers or members of Assads ruling Baath Party were shot in frequent attacks or taken hostage. Assads regime responded with abductions and assassinations of its own. Assad himself was the target of an assassination attempt on June 26, 1980, when Muslim Brotherhood threw two hand grenades at him and opened fire when Assad was hosting the Mali head of state. Assad survived with a foot injury: hed kicked away one of the grenades.​ Within hours of the assassination attempt, Rifaat Assad, Hafezs brother, who controlled the states Defense Companies, sent 80 members of those forces to Palmyra Prison, where hundreds of Muslim Brotherhood members were being held. According to Amnesty International, the soldiers were divided into groups of 10 and, once inside the prison, were ordered to kill the prisoners in their cells and dormitories. Some 600 to 1,000 prisoners are reported to have been killed. ... After the massacre, the bodies were removed and buried in a large common grave outside the prison. That was just a warm-up for what was to come later, as surprise searches of Muslim Brotherhood households became frequent, as did curbside executions in Hama, as well as torture. The Muslim Brotherhood stepped up its attacks, murdering dozens of innocent people. In February 1982, Friedman wrote in his book, From Beirut to Jerusalem, President Assad decided to end his Hama problem once and for all. With his sad eyes and ironic grin, Assad always looked to me like a man who had long ago been stripped of any illusions about human nature. Since fully taking power in 1970, he has managed to rule Syria longer than any man in the post-World War II era. He has done so by always playing by his own rules. His own rules, I discovered, were Hama Rules. On Tuesday, Feb. 2, at 1 a.m., the assault on Hama, a Muslim Brotherhood stronghold, began. It was a cold, drizzly night. The city turned into a scene of civil war as Muslim Brotherhood gunmen immediately responded to the attack. When close-quarter combat looked to disadvantage the Syrian forces of Rifaat Assad, he turned tanks loose on Hama, and over the next several weeks, large parts of the city were demolished and thousands executed or killed in the battles. When I drove into Hama at the end of May, Friedman wrote, I found three areas of the city that had been totally flattenedeach the size of four football fields and covered with the yellowish tint of crushed concrete. Some 20,000 people were killed at Assads orders. That is Hama Rules.

When a Man loves a woman essays

When a Man loves a woman essays In the movie When a Man Loves a Woman it is about a woman who has a problem with drinking and gets put into rehab and when she gets out of rehab her and her husband start to have problems and separate, then they realize their problems and decide to give it another try. In the beginning of the film Michael does not know that there are problems in their marriage because Alice is impersonal and is not communicating her feelings with him, she counts on alcohol to take her problems away. Some of her problems are that Michael has decision control over the children, he undermines her authority and belittles her in front of them, and that her mother criticizes her all the time. When she tries to talk to him about how she feels when he goes away on trips he doesnt talk about it, he just says that when he comes back that they will take a trip to get away. When they go on the trip they start to metacommunicate. When she goes into the hospital she becomes more interpersonal by telling him about hiding the alcohol and hitting her daughter. After Alice gets out of rehab she sits down and tells Michael to ask her anything. He asks how it all got started, she tells him that no one really knows, that it could be that her father was an alcoholic or that maybe it was the fact that her mom made her feel like she was a nobody. Her self-concept about herself is that she is guilty, sad, depressed, frustrated, confused and that she would like to feel happy for once. The reflected appraisal comes from her mothers comments, her mother would blame Alices lapses on her father. The motive of Alices drinking is her mothers comments and her husbands stereotyping by taking her on trips. Towards the end of the movie when he comes homes and sees Gary there. He goes upstairs and she goes up after Gary leaves. They start talking and the talking turns into punctuation when she blames him for Gary leaving. Af ...

Species Divergence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Species Divergence - Essay Example physiology, the mode of interaction with its environment, nutrition regime, etc. While evolutionist ideas may be discerned in several pre-modern scholars’ ruminations, it was only with the advent of the 18th century Enlightenment that modern evolutionary theories formed, with that of Charles Darwin soon taking the pre-eminent place among them. The formation of currently mainstream version of evolutionary biology was immensely helped by the respective advances in the fields of genetics and molecular biology, which helped define the organic basis for evolutionary processes. From a biological organization point of view, evolution proceeds on a species level, as individuals comprising a species do not themselves evolve over the course of their lifespan. However, the results of their interaction with the environment enable the accumulation of new heritable responses within their genotype structures, giving rise to a process of natural selection. The latter, in its turn, conditions the changes in the species’ phenotype (i.e. the complex of biological features). Natural selection may be properly defined as a gradual process of genetic variation whereby the individuals with most favorable gene combinations are more frequently able to transplant their genes to subsequent generations of a species, so that their descendants will define the face of their species. While natural selection process is individual, being transmitted across a species only indirectly, it is genotype of a species as a whole that it impacts on, so that heritable changes in those individuals’ genotypes that are favored by natural selection are spread to the subsequent generations of a species as a whole. The mechanisms of natural selection are varied; however, some of them may be assigned more prominent roles in its perpetration. Of those, ecological selection, with an emphasis on fitting with one’s biological environment, and sexual selection, with an individual’s fecundity and ability to find prospective sexual partners as a key factor, may be considered the primary ones. In turn, these mechanisms may be sub-divided into more specific methods of selection, with, e.g., ecological selection encompassing the mechanisms of intraspecies competition, kin selection, etc., and sexual selection including those of intrasexual selection, intersexual selection (sexual dimorphism), etc. b. Evidence for biological evolution is manifold and comprises the number of data from different scientific disciplines. Within the context of this essay, five types of this evidence will be examined. Plate tectonics. The discovery of the movements of plates in the 20th century laid to rest the notion of unchangeable nature of Earth’s tectonics, contributing to an idea of nature’s propensity for change. On a more specific level, Charles Lyell’s studies on the impact of climatological and geological changes on the distribution of species, with specific emphasis on extinct flora, led the researchers to conclude that movements of large land masses lead to conversion of climates, which meant that animal and plant species had to be dynamic entities, the spatial distribution whereof changes in accordance with the changes of topography brought about by geological agents. Consequently, the changes in floras and faunas were decisively connected with the corresponding shifts of land masses, contributing to the development of an idea of ecological selection. Biogeography. The research in the connection between plate tectonics and changes in life on Earth that was referred to above has been directly connected with the research in the field of biogeography. Such scientists as Edward Forbes, Wallace and Willer Matthew conducted an extensive research in the

Business Project Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Business Project Management - Essay Example However, with increased competition, widespread use of project management theories and processes in day to day functioning of businesses and blurring departmental and functional boundaries, projects are now considered no less than strategic processes underpinning theories and concepts of leadership, strategy, culture, communication, integration and appropriate know-how of relevant systems. This report aims at delving deep into this transformed outlook towards project management approach and how these management functions are shaping the traditional structure of project management into an amalgamation of project, change and process management. With the inclusion of relationship management, risk management, people satisfaction and motivation, empowerment and creativity; project management in itself is turning into a specialised body of knowledge comprising of the vital elements of management, strategy, human resources and operations. To demonstrate this tectonic shift, examples of vari ous projects ranging from big construction to IT ones have been taken so that theories and concepts can be understood in real life terms. ... Projects are time-bound, focus on a single time process and are usually complex in nature because of mingling of several distinct and unrelated functions. Limitation of time, cost and resources add to the characteristics of projects. On the contrary, processes are repeatable and do not suffer from limitations which are present in project management. Homogeneity is also more dominant in process management than do in project management. Traditional approach to project management Traditionally, projects used to be differentiated from that of processes because of superficial differences identified between the two. Their scope, extent of penetration in organization’s philosophy and strategy, resource allocation, level of inter-dependence of different functions and activities within the management of two and results achieved thereof lead to the misconception that projects cannot assume the status of processes and vice-versa. Typical project management cycle includes stereotypic phas es defined as requirements analysis, resource management, project methodology, risk management and project closure. These phases are technical in nature with clear specifications of roles, duty, inputs and respective outputs. They do not recognize the evolving nature of business place and components of business management like planning, controlling, decision making and more contemporary functions of management namely leadership, strategy, cultural ramifications, knowledge of systems and overall congruence with the components of process management. This makes the traditional approach to project management short of fulfilling the current needs of business and unique propositions. Evolved components of project management Prosci (2011) specifically highlights the tripartite nature of project